Abstract
Review of the periodic table and existing research on isotopes of the various elements of the periodic table is conducted and the attempt is made here to visualize the process of element formation.
The role of Neutron in element formation is investigated and found to be vital for existence of elements . In the new light, the new model of nucleus is proposed which explains the stability of the nuclei and reason for multiple stable isotopes of elements.
Review of the Periodic Table
The inspection of the periodic table of elements reveal an interesting fact that for all elements other than Hydrogen, for element to be stable, number of Neutrons are always greater or equal, to the number of Protons in the nucleus. The periodic table is analyzed with respect to the abundance in nature for the elements.
The fusion of Hydrogen to produce Helium can be envisioned as follows:
1H + 1H + 1H + 1H → 2H + 2N + 2e+ (1)
where 2e+ later annihilating to produce additional gamma radiation.
Since tremendous force is needed to keep four protons together during the formation of helium and emit 2 positrons, it is unlikely. The mass of neutron is more than the mass of proton and this fact alone negates the likeliness of the above scenario.
- Neutrons are the building blocks for elements in nature.
- In the elements , other than hydrogen, neutron and proton form a pair (np) and keeps distinct identity.
- Excess neutrons stay at the center of the nuclei but keeps their distinct identity.
- Abundance of isotope is close to 100% when excess neutrons are odd count.
- If the excess neutron count is even, the isotope is radio active.
- Majority elements have only one Isotope.
- Only Potassium has three isotopes, the one with 2 excess neutron is radio active with 0.001 relative abundance.
- Elements He, C, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S are close to one in abundance with no excess neutron and maximum three isotopes.
- Element Be has one excess neutron and one isotope, 100% abundance.
- All other higher elements require four or more excess neutrons for the element to be abundant in nature and has up to 10 stable isotopes.
- Element Ca is exception with 0 excess neutron and 97% abundance. However it is unstable with >E+21 a Half life.
The nature prefers, for more complex nucleus, more neutrons than protons and creates a delicate balance to form a stable nuclei.
This balance of forces is so critical that in case of element F (the stable isotope is with 9 proton and 10 neutrons) The isotope 18F with 9 Protons and 9 Neutrons, with in 20 minutes decays and forms 18O which is stable with 8 protons and 10 Neutrons and gives up a e+ positron to convert proton to neutron and e+ and e- reaction produces Gama radiation.
Equation 18F → 18O + e+
Thus the existence of Neutron is vital to the existence of the universe itself, because without neutron, elements may not have been possible and hence the intelligence as we know today.
Structure of Neutron
The fact that Gravitational binding forces (Fg) of masses in the nucleus needs to be more than the destructive electromagnetic forces (Fem) created by the electrically positive environment of the nucleus, (Fem < Fg) excess neutrons are required in the nuclei. However, even at the center of the nucleus neutrons keep their distinct identity, rather than lumping together to form one heavy neutron. Therefore, neutron can not be just a fuzzy mass but a well defined structure able to hold induced charges with precise demarcation of boundary with an insulating layer, more like a free standing capacitor. Which suggests that at least three particles with two sets of characteristics are required to create a neutron. For our model here, that has to be two particles capable of holding charges and one particle which provides insulation between these particles, similar to that of dielectric layer in the capacitor. Thus in this postulated model the neutron looks and behaves neutral for all practical purposes. However, within nuclei keeps separate and distinct identity and does not combine with other neutrons to form a one central heavy body.
The proposal here defers from the model independent analysis predicting the structure having negative charge on the surface, Positive charge in the next lower level and than neutral mass. My model suggests that neutron is a free standing charged capacitor. This helps in keeping the distance between excess neutron in the nuclei. Otherwise there is nothing stopping these neutrons from lumping together to form a mini neutron star with in the nuclei. This model of Neutron is justified from the known fact that Neutron is heavier than Proton.
For elements other than Hydrogen, the nuclei becomes a chaotic environment. For Example, in case of
4He, two protons require their space and wants to be separate from each other as far as possible, and two neutrons are caught between the two protons as shown in figure 1. From the reference frame of protons it is envisioned that Neutrons spin on its axis at very high rotational speed. One clockwise and other anticlockwise.
Model of nuclei
A new model of nuclei is proposed as shown in the figure 3. A spherical shell of excess neutrons with one neutron at the center of the shell surrounded by paired proton neutron (pn) shell.
For the stable nuclei system the electromagnetic forces needs to be balanced and gravitational forces maximized. From the example of 4He above, it is envisioned that elements are built, in this model, by Heavy Hydrogen nuclei (pn) as a building block and just enough excess neutrons to provide needed gravitational force for stability.
Energy levels (orbitals) in pn outer shell follows the similar shell structure of electrons, with K,L,M,N,O being primary shell and s, p, d, f, g sub shells with similar total charge particle capacity. However for excess neutron shell it differs, where a single neutron stays at the center of the nuclei when in excess. The energy level for that central neutron in this model is called “Foundation neutron” (Fn).
The Table 4 shows the placement of neutrons in each shell.
Nuclei Stability Analysis using above model
For Odd atomic number nuclei:
In the ‘p-n shell’ the outermost pair has no symmetry, however the excess neutron shell is symmetrical for all odd atomic number elements giving the stability and abundance. Referring to table 2 and table 4 , isotopes, with one excess neutron, has relative abundance in nature of 1 or close to 1, The excess neutron takes the place of Fn. The isotopes with 2 excess neutrons are all radio active which can be attributed to the asymmetry of neutron in unfilled K shell, which can hold up to 2 neutrons. When the K shell is completely filled as in the case of 41K, the nuclei is stable. Table 2 outlines isotopes and abundance for majority of elements, all follow the same principle and model fits perfectly with the exception of 14N with atomic number 7. Iodine has 21 excess neutrons, as we see in table 4, the outer most excess neutron shell is symmetrical, making it stable. All other elements follows.
For Even atomic number nuclei:
The stability is obtained from the pn shell. However, excess neutron shell becomes asymmetric and depending on which sub shell, there is a room for additional excess neutrons and hence exhibits many stable isotopes with relative abundance. Theoretical probability calculation may prove this fact.
Instability and radio activity in heavy elements:
The neutron proton (np) pair in nuclei has capability to grow indefinitely. However as the heavier elements are built the inner excess neutron shell is large enough to interact with lower np shells, thus giving instability to the nuclei. e.g. for 238U there are 148 total neutrons and 54 excess neutrons. A nuclei with 111 excess neutron will completely fill up the O shell. All elements after 209Bi are radio active, this shows that interaction of neutrons form excess neutron shell(inner shell) with pn shell is destructive when the N shell is half filled. Thus there is a upper limit to the size of the inner excess neutron shell and this may be the reason for non existence of super heavy stable elements in nature.
Conclusion
This proposed model of nuclei, explains the stability and relative abundance of the nuclei. The nuclei(except for H and He) in this model is a shell with in a shell, where an innermost shell structure is formed with excess neutrons with one Fundamental foundation neutron (Fn) and the rest arranged in shell structure. Protons, form pair with neutron and form shell enclosing this excess neutron shell as shown in figure 3. The stability of the nuclei is a direct result of symmetrical placement of neutrons in the outer most shell of excess neutron shell. The same shell is responsible for many stable isotopes in even atomic number nuclei. The additional isotopes are possible if the outer shell of excess neutron shell holds odd number of neutrons. The nature of neutron is postulated here, the proof of which depends on future experiments.
References
Numerous Scientists’ and scholars’ exhausting work in development of periodic table, investigation of Isotopes is utilized and due credits are given. The list is too large to print here, but due credits are mentally given to all scientists.
Jere:
1 yes
2 no
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Andrea:
1 Are you receiving threats ?
2 Are you worried about them ?
Adele:
9
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dr Rossi,
How would you place in a scale between 0 and ten your trust in the Ecat SKL as of today, after all the experiments made so far ?
Cherly Schwartzbaugh:
Yes, we found substantial evidence that our theory is probably correct.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dr Rossi:
Strong congratulations for your paper
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/330601653_E-Cat_SK_and_long_range_particle_interactions
Is the R&D on course to make the Ecat SK Leonardo able to prodice a permanent self sustained mode, without external energy sources, goiving confirmations or evidence of the integrated theories you presented in this exceptional paper (more than 30,000 readers, more than 200 recommendations).
Emma:
We still are not there. We are working very hard on it.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Andrea
If you succeed to make the infinite-cop-ecat electricity generator the market of cars will be completely changed.
Godspeed,
Emma
Deano Bruffee:
about 280g CO2/kWh
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dr Rossi,
Is there a formula to calculate how much carbon dioxide is generated burning coal to produce 1 kWh of energy?
Thanks.
Henadzi Filipenka:
Thank you for your insight,
Warm Regards,
A.R.
about models of nucleus
https://fhenadzi.wordpress.com
Luca:
Yes.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dr Andrea Rossi:
Is the technology of the E-Cat also in evolution, with improvement of the efficiency?
Rainer Pitthan:
Thank you for this comment to the post ” Excess neutron shell model of nuclei”.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
A isohybrid oscillation of the excess neutrons against the rest of the nucleus was first determined at an excitation energy of 53A**(-1/3) from the results of electron scattering on many heavy nuclei by the Electron Linac of the Naval Postgraduate school in Monterey California (R.Pitthan et al., Phys. Rev. C, 19 (1998) 1251-1275.
This was a continuation of the original first ever discovery of Giant Multipole Resonances 1970/71 (M1, E2) (R. Pitthan, Z. Physik 260(1973)283-304) in Darmstadt/Germany. With the very low momentum transfers of both machines the multipolarity of this Resonance, later dubbed cutely Pygmy or Piccolo resonance, could be determined model-free to be E2.
The measurements in Nuclei from A=28 to A=238 clearly showed an (N-Z)**2 dependence, which should be neither classified as isoscalar, nor isovector.
James Santigo:
Thank you for the link.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Andrea RossiDid you see this last post of Sifferkoll?
http://www.sifferkoll.se/sifferkoll/meet-fred-zoepfl-the-secret-weapon-of-ihapco-or-a-physicist-malfunctioning/
Iggy Dalrimple:
Industrial Heat will choose different locations for different necessities. Honestly, I am not the one who will make decisions for the consequent choices, but I think we will maintain in Florida an activity.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
I am thrilled and happy for your relationship with Industrial Heat.
But since I am a native of Florida I’m concerned that Florida has lost its chance to host the manufacturing production of the eCat. Am I correct in my fear?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Dr Rossi,
New boiling heat transfer technology:
http://www.rdmag.com/news/2013/07/finding-keys-boiling-heat-transfer?et_cid=3371488&et_rid=556728257&type=cta
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Billy Giuseppe Rosencrantz:
As you can read from the Report
http://arxiv.org/abs/1305.3913
(to the Readers, attention: a strong attack is arrived from our enemies, after the report has given evidence that the technology is mature; our report on Arxive has been linked with “backtracks”, made by pseudonyms of the usual snakes, that make you get wrong addresses, where you find insults and falsifications of the text. Be aware to digit exactly the address I reported above if you want to read the original Report)
the Universities from which the Professors that have worked on the tests and/or their review and/or the review of the Report come from the following Universities: Stockolm ( Sweden), Uppsala ( Sweden), Bologna ( Italy), Osaka ( Japan), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique ( Paris, France), INFN (Italy), and the total number of the examiners involved in these activities has been 11.
Another report is expected, because a 6 months long test is in preparation. The next test will last 180 straight days.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Previously I understood that the 3rd party examiners were from 3 or 4 universities and comprised about 11 academic experts.
Have all the professors reported or can we expect yet another 3rd party report?
Truly,
BillyGiuseppe Rosencrantz
Dear Iggy Dalrimple:
Yes.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Once you have completed the design and engineering, does your partner hope to assemble and sell a combined e-Cat/generator package complete with boiler and condenser?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Andrea
>As of today we are 63 persons, and growing up
When you need a switchboard operator, please think of me eh eh eh
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
As of today we are 63 persons, and growing up (three years ago we were 3, two years ago we were 6, last year we were 13).
Warmest Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
How many people are working to develop, improve, manufacture, and market the E-Cat and the Hot-Cat?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Dr Rossi,
Thanks for your kind words praising the United States for its role in World War 2. I thank Italy for its multitude geniuses in the arts and sciences. I have a friend that I hope someday to introduce you to. He is 92 years old and fought under Gen Patton in N Africa and Italy. He is a retired electrical engineer with several patents.
Also read about famous Italian-American Marine Sergeant John Basilone:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Basilone
Semper Fi,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Any gas. We are now designing the best possible catalyzed burner.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Regarding the fact that your industrial Hot-Cat can now be driven by gas: What type gas, propane? If driven by gas, do you still require electricity for the controls? If electric is still required, will a battery suffice?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Promised.
Warm, Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
While you are in a generous mood, please promise Florida’s first domestic
E-Cat to the nonprofit “Panhandle Pioneer Museum” and I will pay for it.
http://ppmuseum.org/b13.htm
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
He,he,he…
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
I propose changing the name of your company to “LENRdo Corporation”.
daVinci would smile.
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Very good point: of course a Customer can make the exam with us and become a certified operator, in cases like the one you said. Very good idea, I didn’t think about this case. Thak you.
Answer: no, it is not a new hazard, it is a reqiorement of the certificator. And it in understandable.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Why have you reversed your stance on allowing your customers to replace the fuel cartridge? Is this because of the certifiers’ requirements or is it a new found hazard that you have discovered?
I ask this because a friend lives on a remote ranch and hiring technicians would be costly. This rancher, by the way, is technically capable. Could he possibly undergo training to service his own E-Cat?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
It is not my intent, it is the reality.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Your reply to Paulo that
“The certification for the domestic apparatus will take much more time”
is discouraging. Was that your intent?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Dr Rossi,
A number of posters, including me, have mentioned the Cyclone Engine to you. I notice that it requires 3,200 psi and about 650°C. Can your Hot-Cat meet that criteria? The Cyclone is compact, efficient, and includes a condenser. You are correct about it being in the development stage but Cyclone has recently contracted with the US Defense Department to provide steam engines to be used as auxiliary power units on tanks and other large equipment. I know that presently you’re concentrating your Hot-Cat efforts on large industrial applications but the Cyclone seems to fit your future needs for powering trucks, tractors, boats, gen-sets, etc.
http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/04/updating_the_st.html
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Dr Joseph Fine,
For desalinization you could pump the salty water through the graphene membrane with Dr Rossi’s pumpernickel device.
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Dr Rossi,
How many industrial units has your first customer ordered?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Yes.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Has your first customer for your industrial unit ordered any additional units?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Facts count.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Big Energy just developed a queasy feeling in the pit of its stomach.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
http://d27vj430nutdmd.cloudfront.net/16748/116298/116298.1.pdf
page 18
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Yes these are possible marketing declinations.
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
Have you yet planned any smaller industrial units, like for remote cell towers, radar sites, forward military observation posts, irrigation pumps & sprinklers, etc?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple
Dear Iggy Dalrymple:
Yes,
Warm Regards,
A.R.
Dear Dr Rossi,
I understand that your planned robotic manufacturing plant is for the production of your domestic E-Cat.
Once you have achieved sufficient demand for your industrial E-Cat, do you foresee robotic production of that, as well?
Sincerely,
Iggy Dalrymple